Go is a language supporting built-in concurrent programming.
By using the go
keyword to create goroutines (light weight threads)
and by using
channels and
other concurrency
synchronization techniques
provided in Go, concurrent programming becomes easy, flexible and enjoyable.
One the other hand, Go doesn't prevent Go programmers from making some concurrent programming mistakes which are caused by either carelessness or lacking of experience. The remaining of the current article will show some common mistakes in Go concurrent programming, to help Go programmers avoid making such mistakes.
Code lines might be not executed by their appearance order.
There are two mistakes in the following program.b
in the main goroutine and the write
of b
in the new goroutine might cause data races.
b == true
can't ensure
that a != nil
in the main goroutine.
Compilers and CPUs may make optimizations by
reordering instructions
in the new goroutine, so the assignment of b
may happen
before the assignment of a
at run time,
which makes that slice a
is still nil
when the elements of a
are modified in the main goroutine.
package main
import (
"time"
"runtime"
)
func main() {
var a []int // nil
var b bool // false
// a new goroutine
go func () {
a = make([]int, 3)
b = true // write b
}()
for !b { // read b
time.Sleep(time.Second)
runtime.Gosched()
}
a[0], a[1], a[2] = 0, 1, 2 // might panic
}
The above program may run well on one computer, but may panic on another one, or it runs well when it is compiled by one compiler, but panics when another compiler is used.
We should use channels or the synchronization techniques provided in thesync
standard package to ensure the memory orders.
For example,
package main
func main() {
var a []int = nil
c := make(chan struct{})
go func () {
a = make([]int, 3)
c <- struct{}{}
}()
<-c
// The next line will not panic for sure.
a[0], a[1], a[2] = 0, 1, 2
}
time.Sleep
Calls to Do Synchronizationspackage main
import (
"fmt"
"time"
)
func main() {
var x = 123
go func() {
x = 789 // write x
}()
time.Sleep(time.Second)
fmt.Println(x) // read x
}
We expect this program to print 789
.
In fact, it really prints 789
, almost always, in running.
But is it a program with good synchronization?
No! The reason is Go runtime doesn't guarantee the write of x
happens before the read of x
for sure.
Under certain conditions, such as most CPU resources are consumed by
some other computation-intensive programs running on the same OS,
the write of x
might happen after the read of x
.
This is why we should never use time.Sleep
calls to do
synchronizations in formal projects.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"time"
)
var x = 0
func main() {
var num = 123
var p = &num
c := make(chan int)
go func() {
c <- *p + x
}()
time.Sleep(time.Second)
num = 789
fmt.Println(<-c)
}
What do you expect the program will output? 123
, or 789
?
In fact, the output is compiler dependent.
For the standard Go compiler 1.19,
it is very possible the program will output 123
.
But in theory, it might also output 789
.
Now, let's change c <- *p + x
to c <- *p
and run the program again, you will find the output becomes to 789
(for the standard Go compiler 1.19).
Again, the output is compiler dependent.
Yes, there are data races in the above program.
The expression *p
might be evaluated before, after, or when
the assignment num = 789
is processed.
The time.Sleep
call can't guarantee the evaluation of
*p
happens before the assignment is processed.
...
tmp := *p
go func() {
c <- tmp
}()
...
select
code block
without default
branch, and all the channel operations
following the case
keywords in the select
code block keep blocking for ever.
Except sometimes we deliberately let the main goroutine in a program hanging to avoid the program exiting, most other hanging goroutine cases are unexpected. It is hard for Go runtime to judge whether or not a goroutine in blocking state is hanging or stays in blocking state temporarily, so Go runtime will never release the resources consumed by a hanging goroutine.
In the first-response-wins channel use case, if the capacity of the channel which is used a future is not large enough, some slower response goroutines will hang when trying to send a result to the future channel. For example, if the following function is called, there will be 4 goroutines stay in blocking state for ever.func request() int {
c := make(chan int)
for i := 0; i < 5; i++ {
i := i
go func() {
c <- i // 4 goroutines will hang here.
}()
}
return <-c
}
To avoid the four goroutines hanging, the capacity of channel c
must be at least 4
.
func request() int {
c := make(chan int)
for i := 0; i < 5; i++ {
i := i
go func() {
select {
case c <- i:
default:
}
}()
}
return <-c // might hang here
}
The reason why the receiver goroutine might hang is that if the five try-send operations
all happen before the receive operation <-c
is ready,
then all the five try-send operations will fail to send values
so that the caller goroutine will never receive a value.
Changing the channel c
as a buffered channel will guarantee
at least one of the five try-send operations succeed so that the caller
goroutine will never hang in the above function.
sync
Standard Package
In practice, values of the types (except the Locker
interface values)
in the sync
standard package should never be copied.
We should only copy pointers of such values.
Counter.Value
method is called,
a Counter
receiver value will be copied.
As a field of the receiver value, the respective Mutex
field
of the Counter
receiver value will also be copied.
The copy is not synchronized, so the copied Mutex
value might be corrupted.
Even if it is not corrupted, what it protects is the use of
the copied field n
, which is meaningless generally.
import "sync"
type Counter struct {
sync.Mutex
n int64
}
// This method is okay.
func (c *Counter) Increase(d int64) (r int64) {
c.Lock()
c.n += d
r = c.n
c.Unlock()
return
}
// The method is bad. When it is called,
// the Counter receiver value will be copied.
func (c Counter) Value() (r int64) {
c.Lock()
r = c.n
c.Unlock()
return
}
We should change the receiver type of the Value
method to
the pointer type *Counter
to avoid copying sync.Mutex
values.
The go vet
command provided in Go Toolchain will report
potential bad value copies.
sync.WaitGroup.Add
Method at Wrong Places
Each sync.WaitGroup
value maintains a counter internally,
The initial value of the counter is zero.
If the counter of a WaitGroup
value is zero,
a call to the Wait
method of the WaitGroup
value
will not block, otherwise, the call blocks until the counter value becomes zero.
To make the uses of WaitGroup
value meaningful,
when the counter of a WaitGroup
value is zero,
the next call to the Add
method of the WaitGroup
value
must happen before the next call to the Wait
method of
the WaitGroup
value.
Add
method
is called at an improper place, which makes that the final printed number
is not always 100
. In fact, the final printed number of
the program may be an arbitrary number in the range [0, 100)
.
The reason is none of the Add
method calls are guaranteed to
happen before the Wait
method call, which causes none of
the Done
method calls are guaranteed to
happen before the Wait
method call returns.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"sync"
"sync/atomic"
)
func main() {
var wg sync.WaitGroup
var x int32 = 0
for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
go func() {
wg.Add(1)
atomic.AddInt32(&x, 1)
wg.Done()
}()
}
fmt.Println("Wait ...")
wg.Wait()
fmt.Println(atomic.LoadInt32(&x))
}
To make the program behave as expected, we should move the
Add
method calls out of the new goroutines created in the for
loop,
as the following code shown.
...
for i := 0; i < 100; i++ {
wg.Add(1)
go func() {
atomic.AddInt32(&x, 1)
wg.Done()
}()
}
...
fa
and fb
are two such functions,
then the following call uses future arguments improperly.
doSomethingWithFutureArguments(<-fa(), <-fb())
In the above code line, the generations of the two arguments are processed sequentially, instead of concurrently.
We should modify it as the following to process them concurrently.ca, cb := fa(), fb()
doSomethingWithFutureArguments(<-ca, <-cb)
A common mistake made by Go programmers is closing a channel when there are still some other goroutines will potentially send values to the channel later. When such a potential send (to the closed channel) really happens, a panic might occur.
This mistake was ever made in some famous Go projects, such as this bug and this bug in the kubernetes project.
Please read this article for explanations on how to safely and gracefully close channels.
The address of the value involved in a non-method 64-bit atomic operation is required to be 8-byte aligned. Failure to do so may make the current goroutine panic. For the standard Go compiler, such failure can only happen on 32-bit architectures. Since Go 1.19, we can use 64-bit method atomic operations to avoid the drawback. Please read memory layouts to get how to guarantee the addresses of 64-bit word 8-byte aligned on 32-bit OSes.
time.After
Function
The After
function in the time
standard package
returns a channel for delay notification.
The function is convenient, however each of its calls will
create a new value of the time.Timer
type.
The new created Timer
value will keep alive in the duration
specified by the passed argument to the After
function.
If the function is called many times in a certain period,
there will be many alive Timer
values accumulated
so that much memory and computation is consumed.
longRunning
function is called
and there are millions of messages coming in one minute, then there will
be millions of Timer
values alive in a certain small period (several seconds),
even if most of these Timer
values have already become useless.
import (
"fmt"
"time"
)
// The function will return if a message
// arrival interval is larger than one minute.
func longRunning(messages <-chan string) {
for {
select {
case <-time.After(time.Minute):
return
case msg := <-messages:
fmt.Println(msg)
}
}
}
To avoid too many
Timer
values being created in the above code,
we should use (and reuse) a single Timer
value to do the same job.
func longRunning(messages <-chan string) {
timer := time.NewTimer(time.Minute)
defer timer.Stop()
for {
select {
case <-timer.C: // expires (timeout)
return
case msg := <-messages:
fmt.Println(msg)
// This "if" block is important.
if !timer.Stop() {
<-timer.C
}
}
// Reset to reuse.
timer.Reset(time.Minute)
}
}
Note, the if
code block is used to discard/drain a possible timer notification
which is sent in the small period when executing the second branch code block.
time.Timer
Values Incorrectlytime.Timer
values has been shown in the last section.
Some explanations:
Stop
method of a *Timer
value returns false
if the corresponding Timer
value has already expired or been stopped.
If the Stop
method returns false
, and we know
the Timer
value has not been stopped yet,
then the Timer
value must have already expired.
Timer
value is stopped, its C
channel field
can only contain most one timeout notification.
Timer
value after the Timer
value is stopped
and before resetting and reusing the Timer
value.
This is the meaningfulness of the if
code block in the example in the last section.
The Reset
method of a *Timer
value must be called
when the corresponding Timer
value has already expired or been stopped, otherwise,
a data race may occur between the Reset
call and
a possible notification send to the C
channel field of the Timer
value.
If the first case
branch of the select
block is selected,
it means the Timer
value has already expired, so we don't need to stop it,
for the sent notification has already been taken out.
However, we must stop the timer in the second branch to check whether or not a timeout notification exists.
If it does exist, we should drain it before reusing the timer,
otherwise, the notification will be fired immediately in the next loop step.
package main
import (
"fmt"
"time"
)
func main() {
start := time.Now()
timer := time.NewTimer(time.Second/2)
select {
case <-timer.C:
default:
// Most likely go here.
time.Sleep(time.Second)
}
// Potential data race in the next line.
timer.Reset(time.Second * 10)
<-timer.C
fmt.Println(time.Since(start)) // about 1s
}
A time.Timer
value can be leaved in non-stopping status
when it is not used any more, but it is recommended to stop it in the end.
It is bug prone and not recommended to use a time.Timer
value
concurrently among multiple goroutines.
We should not rely on the return value of a Reset
method call.
The return result of the Reset
method exists
just for compatibility purpose.
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reflect
표준 패키지sync
표준 패키지sync/atomic
표준 패키지